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PolitenessprincipleGeoffreyLeechEmeritusProfessorofEnglishLinguisticsLancasterUniversityGrice'scooperativePrinciple(withitsattendantMaxims)maybeinterpretedasfollows.Inordertomaintaineffectivecommunication,usersoflanguagemaybesupposedtodotheirbesttopreservecertainregulativegoals:Theywilltrytobeappropriatelyinformative(Maximofquantity),truthful(maximofquality),relevant(maximofrelation)andclear,orderly,etc.(maximofmanner).Ifaspeakermanifestlyappearsnottoobservethesepreceptsofgoodcommunicativebehaviour,thenaccordingtoGrice,areasonmaybethatheintendsthehearertoinferfromhisutterancesomemeaningadditionaltotheconventionalsenseofthewordsandothersignalshehasuttered.Butwhyshouldaspeakerresorttosuchobliquemethodsofcommunication?Why,forexample,insteadofsayingCouldyougivemealight?doeshenotsaymoreterselyanddirectlyGivemealight?Theanswerliesinotherregulativegoalswhichhehastokeepinview,notablythegoalofbeingpolite.Thefivesetsofphenomenapolitenessasareal-worldgoal现实目的：礼貌被视为取悦他人的真实目的、内在动因deference敬重register语体：语体与社交语境有关的系统化变体；一定场合下人们说或写作时的语言变体politenessasasurfacelevelphenomenon一种话语表层现象politenessasanillocutionaryphenomenon一种行事现象：礼貌是一种语用现象Pragmaticapproachestopolitenessconversational-maximview会话准则礼貌观(Leech,1980;1983)face-managementview面子维护观(BrownandLevinson,1987)conversational-contractview会话默契观(Fraster,1990)pragmaticscalesview语用等级观(Spencer-Oatey,1992)Leech'sapproachtopolitenessPolitenessincommunicationrequirespeopletoadoptstrategiesofa)maximizing“politebeliefs”;b)minimizing“impolitebeliefs”.Politebeliefsisthetermsconvenientlyusedforbeliefs(expressedorimplicated)favourabletotheotherpersonorunfavourabletothespeaker;andimpolitebeliefsarethosewhichareunfavourabletotheotherperson,orfavourabletothespeaker.Positivepoliteness&negativepolitenessemphasizingthehearer’spositivestatus:Positivepolitenessmeansbeingcomplimentaryandgracioustotheaddressee(butifthisisoverdone,thespeakermayalienatetheotherparty).Italsoconfirmsthattherelationshipisfriendlyandexpressesgroupreciprocity.mitigatingtheeffectofbelittlingexpressions:Negativepolitenessisfoundinwaysofmitigatingtheimposition(Makingarequestlessinfringing).e.g.Ifyoudon'tmind...orIfitisn'ttoomuchtrouble...(respectsaperson'srighttoactfreely)…wearemoreconcernedwithnegativepoliteness,forbreakdownsingoodrelationsaremuchmorelikelytoresultfromexpressingbelittlingthoughts.(p.65)Politenessmaybespeaker-relatedorhearer-related.Speaker-orientedpolitenessinvolvesself-belittlementwhilehearer-orientedpolitenessputsemphasisonthehearer’spositivestatus.(p.65)Hearer-orientedpolitenessismoresalientandcrucialinverbalinteractions.(p.65)为保证对方的负面面子不受威胁，说话人就要有负面的礼貌策略(negative-politenessstrategies)。这就是说，说话人要通过道歉、贬己、勉强而为、含糊其辞、消极无奈等途径来维护啊听话人的面子，使其行为不至于受到阻碍和干扰。为保证对方正面面子不受威胁，说话人又要懂得使用正面的礼貌策略(positive-politenessstrategies)，也就是说千方百计让听话人的面子得到尊重。说话人可以通过迎合听话人心意和取悦听话人的语言，让他感到自己的行为获得说话人的承认和赞许。正面礼貌策略：满足对方面子上正面的要求–表明共识。包括说话人对听话人的赞赏、兴趣和观点方面的认同等。–表明说话人和听话人的合作。–使听话人的需求获得满足。Whatlovelyroses;Iwishourslookedlikethat!Howdoyoudoit?Youareright.I’llthinkitoverandletyouknowmydecision.Youmustbehungry,it’salongtimesincebreakfast.Howaboutsomelunch?负面礼貌策略：满足对方面子上反面的要求–不强求。给听话人自主，他可以不接受说话人的观点或要求。–向听话人道歉，表明无意在感情或行动上伤害听话人。–寻找借口，避免对方因欠情而产生尴尬，维护对方负面面子不受伤害。Iwouldliketoborrowyoucar,ifyouwouldn’tmind.Iwouldn’tbuythatifIwereyou.I’msorryIdidn’tcometoupsetyou.Butthat’safact.Letmehelpyouwithyoursuitcase.I’mgoingupstairsanyway.间接礼貌策略：避免直言不讳，不直接触及对方的面子–说话人通过暗示的方式间接表达自己的意图。–说话人有意地违反合作原则中的某一准则，让听话人推导出其间接表达的意图。–说话人有意含糊其辞，使用模糊语或模糊限制语，把话说得模棱两可。–说话人只提原则，不讲具体，拐弯抹角，声东击西。Thissoup’sabitbland.(=Passthesalt.)Whatahotday!(=Howaboutadrink?)Areyougoingtomarkettomorrow?(=Givemearidethere.)A:WhatdoyouthinkofHarry?B:Nothingwrongwithhim.(=Idon’tthinkhe’sverygood.)She’ssomekindofidiot.(=She’sanidiot.)Childrenareexpectedtorespecttheirelders.Officerswillweartiesatdinner.Iwouldn’tbuythatifIwereyou.(=Don’tbuythat.)Thesixmainmaxims1.Thetactmaxim得体准则2.Thegenerositymaxim慷慨准则3.Theapprobationmaxim赞誉准则4.Themodestymaxim谦逊准则5.Theagreementmaxim一致准则6.Thesympathymaxim同情准则利益分配评价对他人的态度Thetactmaxim得体准则减少表达有损于他人的观点。Minimizethecosttoothers;尽量让别人少吃亏；b)maximizethebenefittoothers.尽量让别人多受益。Thistactmaximisorientedtowardsthehearerandinvolvesnegativeandpositivepoliteness.Itsoperationcanbeseenclearlyinthecontextofimpositives,i.e.utterancesconcerningcommands,requests,beseechments,etc.(P.65)Givemeyourmoney.Cleantheoffice.Shutthewindow.OpenyourmouthwideandsayAh!Haveanothercupofcoffee.Haveaniceday.Enjoyyoursummervacation.Whyistheresuchadifferentforcebetweentheseutterances?Inordertogetthehearertodosomethingthatinvolvesacost,apolitespeakerwillproduceanutteranceinaformthatsoftenstheeffectoftheimpositive.(P.66)Apolitespeakermayuseminimizerstoreducetheimpliedcosttothehearer.E.g.–I’moccupiednow.Hangonasecond!–Look!You’vegotabitofaproblemhere.Therealcostislefttothehearertorecognizethroughimplicature.(P.67)Inothersituations,hemaymitigatetheeffectoftheimpositivebyofferingoptionality.(P.66)–CouldyoupleasetellmehowtogettotheLondonTower?–Iwaswonderingwhetherornotyouwou